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Chp 9

Chapter 21 is about Proposals (pp 591-633). This chapter stresses the importance of proposals in the technical workplace; “the purpose a proposal is to present your ideas and plans for your readers” (p 591). There are two kinds of proposals: the solicited and the unsolicited proposals (pp 591-592). Like in any other type of document, proposals need to have a pattern of organization. Usually a proposal contains: introduction, description of current situation, review of qualifications, discussion of costs and benefits, graphics and budget (p 591).

Therefore if you want to write a proposal it is necessary to plan and research. First it is necessary to start with the rhetorical situation: the subject, purpose, readers and context of use (596-598). Once you have defined the rhetorical situation you will need to do some research. Chapter 7 is about how to do research, like: do background research, ask about subject matter experts, etc (pp 599-600).

After you have all this information you will have to create the first draft and organize it. The first part of the proposal is the introduction; “minimally, your proposal’s introduction should clearly identify your subject, purpose and main point” (p 600). The second part is where you describe the current situation. In other words you define the problem you want to solve; you will describe the causes and the effects of this. This section can be divided in: opening, body and closing (p 602). Then it is necessary to give your project plan. In this section of the proposal you identify the solution, state the objectives of the plan, describe the plan’s major and minor steps and indentify the deliverables or outcomes” (p 603). This section can also be divided in opening, body and closing. “In most proposals, the project plan is the longest section of the document” (p 609). The next part in a proposal is where you describe the qualifications; in this section you argue why you, your team or your company can solve the problem. Usually there are 3 types of descriptions: description of personnel, of organization and previous experience (p 609). Once you define the qualification you are able to talk about costs and benefits; it “summarizes the advantages of saying yes to the proposal while also telling readers how much the project will cost” (p 616). The final part is the conclusion; in this section, like in any other paper, you restate the main point of the paper (p 618).

Another important part of the proposal is the style you will use in the proposal. Plain style can be use when “description is more important” (p 618). On the other hand persuasive style can be use when “readers are expected to make decisions” (p 618). Add to this graphics are very important in proposals “good design is very important in proposals” (p 621). Finally it is very important to revise, edit and proofread as in any other document.

Chapter 14 is about “Designing websites” (pp 348-373). It is practically about how to create, design and maintain a website. I found this chapter like a repetition of other chapters, because it mentions information that has been told before. Even though it repeats the information; I learned something that is very important “the first thing you should remember about websites is that they are documents. They may look different from paper-based documents and they may used different, but they are still written text with words and images” (p 349).

Websites, like written documents, have a “common” organization. A home page is like the introduction of the document. Node pages are the chapters, linking is like if you turned the page. Web pages have graphics, the site map and search engine works as the index and the navigation bar is the table of contents (p 349). With this in mind, if you want to create a web page it is also necessary to consider the subject; “clearly define the boundaries of your website by determining what is “inside” the subject areas and what is “outside”” (p 352). Equally important, it is necessary to consider the purpose of the website. Similarly to any other document readers should be considered (primary, secondary, tertiary readers, and gatekeeper readers). Context of use also plays an important role in planning a website; physical, economic, ethical and political context should be considered (pp 353).

Consequently websites needs to be organized; “organizing and drafting a website is not all that different from organizing and drafting a print document” (p 356). The author mentions that some professional people use the logical mapping to start organizing the page (p356). The logical map helps you to determine how many levels you can include in your page.; “A maximum of 3 links for the most important information, a maximum of 5 links for 80 percent of all information, and a maximum of 7 links for all information” (p 357). Something that I found very important is that we need to be careful with plagiarism; “the same rules apply to websites as apply to print documents” (p 362). Also the style and the design of the page are very important. “Links should reflect titles, keep sentences short, keep paragraphs short, and use mapping to develop themes” (p 364). Similarly a page with a good design and pages that are easy to use attract more readers and give the sensation that they are more reliable (p 365). Finally when you are done with the format of the page it is necessary to revise it; it is necessary to use the 4 levels of editing mentioned in chapter 12 (revising, substantive editing, copyediting, and proofreading (p 368)).

Chapter11 is about “creating and using graphics” (pp 274-304). In this chapter I learned when it is appropriate to use a chart, a graphic or a picture. The author mentions 4 guidelines for using graphics (p 275); the first guideline is “a graphic should tell a simple story” (p 276) and it means that graphics should be easy to understand. The second one is “a graphic should reinforce the written text, not replaced it” (p 277) in other words picture only supports what you are writing; graphics can not substitute what you need to say to your readers. The third guideline is “a graphic should be ethical” (pp 277-278), you should not modify the facts in a graphic or in a chart, etc to “hide information, distort facts, or exaggerate trends (p277). And the last guideline is “a graphic should be labeled and placed properly” (p 279); “proper labeling and placement of graphics help readers move back and forth between the print and the visual features” (p 279).

Now that we know these guidelines it is necessary to differentiate when can we use a line graph, bar charts, tables, pie charts, flowcharts or a Gantt chart (280-289). A line graph can be use to show how quantities changes trough time. Bar charts are used “to show quantities, allowing readers to make visual comparisons among measurements” (p283). Tables are use to show facts, it is not necessary to have numbers. Pie charts can be very helpful to show how a “whole divides into parts”(p 287). Flowcharts can be use when it is necessary to guide readers. A Gantt chart is like an agenda, it can be very helpful in a project schedule (p289).

Similarly we should know when we can use pictures, drawings and screen shots (289-296); “Thepurpose of a picture, drawing, or videos is to show what something looks like” (p289). For example every time we want to use a photograph we can ask ourselves what “story you want the photograph to tell”(289).  Just be careful of what kind of picture you will use. For example if you want to use a picture of a place; make sure that there is enough light, and try to include people. On the other hand illustrations “are often better than photographs at depicting buildings,equipment, maps, and schematic designs” (p 293).

Chapter 17 is about Letters and Memos (pp 450-486). Letters and memos are often used in work. Both have almost the same style,organization, content, etc; but they differ in to whom they are addressed.Letters are usually used to people who are outside the company; on the other hand memos are used to inform people inside the company.  Also they differ in the format: “The formatof a letter usually includes a letterhead, the date, and inside address, agreeting, and a closing with the writer’s signature” (p453). Equally the format of a memo includes “a header, the date, and lines for the addressee” (p 453).

Every time that we write a memo or a letter we should consider the rhetorical situation. We must consider the subject, purpose,readers, and context of use (pp453-456). Add to this we need to have a good organized letter and memo. This includes a good introduction; this means that the subject, purpose and main point must be clear and easy to find. Also thebody should only have the information that readers need to know to take an action.Likewise, the introduction must be clear and it must restate the main point(pp457-460).

In the same way, the author gives some examples of different types of letters and memos. Also Johnson mentions when it is appropriate to use them. The different types of letters and memos are: inquiry, response,transmittal, claim, adjustment, and refusal (pp 461-469). Inquiry letters are used to “gather information” (p 461). A response is used to “answer an inquiry”(p463). The purpose of transmittal letters is to “explain the reason the enclosed materials are being sent” (p 463). Claim letters are used to complain.Adjustment letters are use to respond a claim letter.  Refusal, “also called bad news letters or memos…in theses documents, you are telling the readers something they don’t want to hear” (pp 466-469).

Finally the author mentions the difference in drafting a letter and a memo. A letter contains letter heads, inside address, greetings,messages, and a signature (pp 474-476). On the contrary memos only include a header and a message.

Chapter 10 is about designing documents and interfaces(pp231-273).  I found this chapter very helpful because it indicates the importance of the design of a document. The author mentions that “there are 5 principles to consider as you design documents: Balance, Alignment, Grouping, Consistency, and Contrast” (p 232).

Balance is to give the reader a sense of “stability”. It means that if you put something to the left, you should have something to the right. Also Johnson mentions that designers give “weight” to different parts ofthe document; for example big items weight more than small items, etc (p 236).Similarly the alignment principle says that text, pictures etc should bealigned vertically and horizontally (p243). The third principle is grouping. We, the readers tend to see the documentin parts; readers tend to “see items that are placed near each other as a whole unit” (p 245). Principle 4 is consistency and it advices that the document should have the same style, font size, etc. This will help your reader to understand it better.  The last principleis contrast, “contrast makes items look distinct and different, adding energyand sharpening boundaries among the features on the page or screen” (p257).

Chapter 5 is about ethics in the workplace (pp 91-116). In this chapter the author defines ethics and its importance. The author divides the ethics in 3 different “divisions”: Personal ethics, social ethics and conservation ethics (p 96). Personal ethics are the values you learned from your family and society. To my opinion this ethic is very subjective, because it depends in every culture. Social ethics are the values that refer to“constitutional, legal, utilitarian, and caring sources” (p 96). Conservation ethics are values that deal with ecosystem and the environment (p 96).

Besides, the authors talks about what to do when you have anethical dilemma. He recommends to “start considering it from all three ethical perspectives: personal, social and conservations” (p 103); asking yourself simple questions like: how my decision will affect my family? What is better for the company? Or how will I affect the environment? In addition Johnson mentions in page 104 the method that Professor Sam Dragga recommends to solve an ethical problem. This method consist in questions like: Do any laws or rules govern my decision? Do any corporate or professional codes of ethics offer guidance? Are there any historical records to learn from? What do my colleagues think? What would moral leaders do?   

Clearly then, ethical dilemmas have some sequences such as fraud, information sharing, plagiarism, etc. Therefore companies and authors need to protect their work. For this reason exist laws such as the copyright law, this protect information, music or pictures of being used with out permission (p109). In the same way patents also protects the work of inventors.

Chapter 8 is about organizing and drafting (pp 174-204). It reinforces the idea that all documents have a basic organization: Introduction, body, and conclusion; but it is necessary to clarify that most of the technical documents have their own different organization styles. In the basic structure, the introduction is where you establish your goal; you tell the readers why the document is important. Thereare 6 basics rules that can help you to write a good introduction: “define your subject, state your purpose, state your main point, stress the importance ofthe subject, provide background information and forecast the content” (pp 182,183). The body is where you provide to readers all the information they need to understand your idea. Usually bodies of documents are divided in to sections opening, body, and closing (pp187-188). On the other hand paragraphs can follow a “pattern of arrangement to organize your ideas” (p 188) like: cause and effect, comparison and contrast, better and worse, costs and benefits, chronological order, problem/needs/solution, examples, etc (p 188). The last part of the document is the conclusion; the purpose of it is to summarize your document, bring back the purpose of the paper, and to remind your reader why it is important.“Conclusion should be concise and to the point” (p196). Like in the introduction, there are 5 rules that can help you to write a successful conclusion: make an obvious transition, restate your main point, restress theimportance of the subject, look for the future, and say thank you and offer contact information (pp 197-198).

Chapter 12 is about “revising and editing for usability” (pg305). This chapter is about how to revise your document. To check it you have 4different levels; Revision, substantive editing, copyediting, and proofreading (pg 306). To edit your document you can use one of the different levels, but itis better to use all of them starting from revision. Revision refers to “revisethe document as a whole” (pg 306), substantive editing is to revise the organization and the design of the document. Copyediting refers to check the coherence of the document between sentences, paragraphs, etc; and proofreading is to check the grammar, punctuation and spelling.

The last part of the chapter is about usability testing and it means “trying out your document on real readers” (pg322). There are 2 kinds: the formal and the informal. The informal usability test is when you ask friends or a person to read the document and point where the document needs to be improved. The formal is used when you use an experiment to measure how well the readers understand the document.